Educational technology is a comprehensive and integrated process involving people, procedure, ideas, devices, and organization, where technology from various fields of science are used with respect to the required educational need for implementation, evaluation, assessment, instruction and managing solutions to any problems involved in any aspect of learning (Gentry, 1972).
Paul Saettler stated that educational technology can be traced back to the time when tribal sages of systematized bodies of knowledge and ancient cultures invented symbolic pictures or sign writing to document and convey information (2004). In every period of civilization, one can find an instructional technique or set of procedures intended to implement a particular cultural practice which was also supported by number of previous investigations and substantiations (Diamond 1997). The more advanced the culture, the more complex the technology of instructional methods became. These designs reflected particular ways individuals and social behavior were intended to run an educated society (Diamond 2004). Over time, each significant shift in educational values, goals or objectives led to diverse technological tools and theories of instruction (Diamond 1997).
In ancient Greece there was a classification of professional known as elder sophists (IEP, 2011). Sophists were considered to be teachers of genuine knowledge and are the originators of using the term “technelogia” to refer to the process of applying knowledge systematically to the practical art of instruction (Merriam-Webster, 2007). They formulated cognitive rules, systematically analyzed subject matter, designed instructional technologies, and designed effective instructional materials.
Walter Ong broke the areas of educational communication down into eight distinctive stages throughout history: oral, early writing, later writing, early print, later print, electric, electronic and digital (1982). Similarly, Marshall McLuhan stated that there were four epochs in educational communication; Oral tribal culture, manuscript culture, Gutenberg galaxy and the electric culture (McLuhan 1968). Diamond, like Ong and McLuhan affirms that the most significant educational technology was the construction of symbols that were used to communicate meaning to someone else (Diamond 1997). The development of language and writing are the foundation that all other technology can be built upon. The use of auditory symbols predates writing and organized language significantly and developed independently all over the world (Diamond 1997). However, developing systems of written symbols arose independently in only a handful of places around the world; specifically Sumeria, Egypt, China, Mesoamerica and the Cherokee (Diamond 1997).
The advent of writing lead to mathematics, with the Babylonians responsible for invented the first tool designed for calculating numeric notations known as the abacus (Derry & Williams 1993). The abacus is one of the longest enduring educational technologies as it is still used in numerous countries today. Moreover, the ancient world brought binary numeric systems in India, astronomical calculators in Greece, writing tools from Sumer and Egypt, and the organization of venues to engage in educational practices like Pythagoras’s and Plato’s academies (Derry & Williams 1993).
Paper and the papermaking process which was developed in China during the early 2nd century AD, was carried to the Middle East and was spread to Mediterranean by the Muslim conquests. Evidences support that a paper mill was also established in Sicily in the 12th century. The discovery of spinning wheel increased the productivity of thread making process to a great extent and when the spinning wheel allowed for an increased supply of rags, and permitted the production of cheap paper, which was a prime factor in the development of printing technology (Derry & Williams 1993).
Pierre Abelard reshaped the methods of scholastic instruction in the middle ages, which was a new way of structuring and presenting materials that helped develop the scholastic style of education, marking a significant change in educational technology (Saettler 2004). The invention of the printing press followed in the 15th century by Johannes Gutenberg, a German inventor. During the Renaissance, the printing press, which was a prime developmental factor in the history of educational technology, allowed educators to communicate with respect to the need and complexity of the culture or society in question (Saettler 2004). Additionally, John Amos Comenius pioneered the way of instructional technology with his book “Orbus Pictus” (The World in Picture) by creating what is recognized as the first textbook (Saettler 2004).
It is during this era that McLuhan states was the most significant change in how people will interact within their environments. He concluded that these technologies with create a gravitational effect on cognition, which in turn alter social organization and ultimately influencing how technology is used to communicate and educate (McLuhan 1968).
In the beginning of the industrial era, educational processes heavily relied upon simple things like chalk slates, the blackboard, chalk and textbooks that had limited illustrations (Saettler 2004). Educational technology was considered synonymous to simple aids like charts and pictures. The 19th century led to production of textbooks, blackboards, and improved writing instruments like pens and pencils (Saettler 2004). The invention of cameras that could capture still images over time revolutionized the art of photography and led to the use of visual instruction (Derry & Williams 1993).
The end of the 19th century saw two significant advances in instructional methods contributed by Maria Montessori, Edward Thorndike and John Dewey. Montessori developed the Montessori Method, where she created materials that were designed to provide appropriate sequencing of subject matter for individual learners (Saettler 2004).
Both Edward Thorndike and John Dewey were responsible for formulating scientific theory and scientific methods respectively. They put significant emphasis on the use of empirical investigation and evidence as the foundation for a structured and organized process for learning (Saettler 2004).
Both Edward Thorndike and John Dewey were responsible for formulating scientific theory and scientific methods respectively. They put significant emphasis on the use of empirical investigation and evidence as the foundation for a structured and organized process for learning (Saettler 2004).
The 20th century brought significant technological advances that were incorporated into education. The close of the 19th century saw a dramatic increase in public schools in the western world, while the beginning of the 20th saw the development of radio, film projectors, televisions, and the first generation of computer technology (Saettler 2004). The latter half of the century saw exponential growth in electronic and digital technology. The invention of integrated circuits and silicon transistors revolutionized electronic technologies and in turn, how people interacted with each other and their world (McLuhan 1964). Moreover, Apple and IBM invented computers designed for personal use, the World Wide Web was born and Netscape Communications Corporation designed the first web browser opening the doors to the digital era.
Electronics is the main technology being developed in the 21st century. Broadband Internet access has become popular and has now occupied almost all the work based offices and places of education in the developed world. Furthermore, the developing countries of the world now too have access to these technologies, and it has in effect created a global village (McLuhan 1964). Thomas Friedman refers to this phenomenon as the flattening of the world because the digital age has brought everyone so close together that attaining information or communicating with anyone is available within seconds (2005).
